Strength
Training Project for Baseball/Softball
Strength-training programs have long been
recognized as a vital component of successful athletes and teams. The emphasis on strength training for
improved athletic performance began to take hold when Boyd Epley
introduced a weight- lifting program to the University of Nebraska’s football
team in 1969 (Musgrave, 2001). For the
next twenty years, the connection between strength training and the improvement
in athletic performance focused primarily on football players. Since the late 1980s, there has been a
tremendous increase in the use of strength training to improve the performances
of athletes in other sports as well.
Athletes in a variety of venues are using weight training to get bigger,
stronger, and faster. It is only within
the past ten years, however, that strength training’s
role in improving athletic performances of individuals participating in the
sport of baseball has been recognized and expanded. During this time, there has been a greater
emphasis on offensive production and scoring in baseball. This emphasis has focused primarily on an
increase in the number of home runs being hit.
The strength and power needed to improve a player’s offensive output and
home-run-hitting ability has led to an increase in the use of year-round,
strength-training programs.
Despite the recent surge in the use of
strength-training programs as a tool for improving performances of baseball
players, the resources for implementing these programs and the data on the
actual effects of these programs are limited.
In addition to the limited resources, many myths exist concerning the
effects of strength training on a baseball player’s body and his performance on
the field. For example, many people have
the misconception that strength training limits the overall flexibility of a
player, which can hinder a player’s throwing and hitting ability. This project will attempt to dispel such
myths by showing how a strength-training program can positively influence a baseball
player’s levels of strength, endurance, flexibility, and overall athletic
performance.
Project
Outcomes
The primary objective of my project was
to develop a resource guide and video that would enable coaches to create and
implement their own strength-training programs.
This project was also designed to be an informative resource for the
data that exists on the effects of strength programs upon the performances of
baseball players. Specific outcomes
desired for this project involved the means of improving the athletic
performance components of baseball players.
These performance components include throwing velocity, batting average,
hitting power, and running speed. As a
coach responsible for the strength-training program of my team, it is my goal
to develop the players to their highest potential of athletic performance. I believe that one of the ways that this can
be accomplished is through an appropriate and effective strength-training
program.
The baseline measurement for determining
the levels of each of the athletic performance components is ultimately based
on the performance and production of the athlete on the field, and the
performance of the athlete’s team in regards to wins and losses. While there are many factors that can lead to
a higher level of performance by an individual or a team, one such factor is an
improvement in the physical condition of the athlete through the use of
strength training. It is a difficult
task, however, to determine whether physical condition was the most important
factor in improving the level of performance outcomes, or if another factor was
indeed more critical.
To determine the physical effects and
outcomes of strength training on an athlete, an evaluation tool has been
designed to help identify the athlete’s level of improvement. The evaluation tool involves the testing of
an athlete’s one-repetition maximum in particular core lifts at various times
throughout the year. The one-repetition
maximum is an expression of the maximum amount of weight an athlete can lift in
a particular exercise. The
one-repetition maximum is commonly calculated by inserting the results of an
athlete’s multiple-repetition maximum into a formula. The one-repetition maximum is vital to the
success of a strength-training program since it is the factor that determines
the intensity to be used in core lifts.
The baseline data for the one-repetition maximums is recorded at the
beginning of the school year, following the off-season lifting program that the
athletes participated in over the summer.
The athletes are tested again at the end of the fall program in
November, again at the end of the winter program in January, and once more at
the end of the baseball season in May, which precedes the summer program. The athletes and coaches can use the data
that is recorded during these evaluations to determine the level resistance to
be used in the core lifts, referred to as the level of intensity. The level of intensity is a percentage of the
one-repetition maximum in the core lifts and varies throughout the course of
the strength-training program. This data
can also be used to make comparisons between the various training programs
utilized by the coaches throughout the year.
I reviewed the existing research in order
to determine the effects of a strength-training program upon the player’s
athletic performance on the field and the subsequent performance of the
team. There was a limited amount of
information available on these topics, especially pertaining to the effects of
strength training on team performance.
Review of
Literature
It is evident with the improvements in
athletic performances and the continual breaking of long-standing records, that
strength-training programs have had a tremendous impact on the training
regimens of athletes in all sports.
There is a great deal of research that confirms that strength-training
programs can lead to an improved level of performance. Historically, baseball
has lagged behind other sports in the implementation of strength-training
programs. More recently, however,
professional baseball players have stressed the importance of these programs in
the development and improvement of their play.
One need to look no further than the record-breaking year of 1998, when
Mark McGuire and Sammy Sosa both shattered the season record for home runs, for
the evidence of the role that strength training has in a baseball player’s
performance. Both players acknowledged
that strength training played a key role in the development of their powerful,
record-setting swings (Shepard, 1998).
With the increased exposure of the role of strength training in baseball
performance, many books have been published which promote generic training
programs that promise to improve a baseball player’s level of performance. However, existing literature and research
have shown that in order for a training program to be successful in helping to
attain improvements in baseball player’s performances, it should be tailored to
the needs of each baseball program and the individual athlete, and it should
also be specific in terms of improving those skills necessary to the sport of
baseball. It is these standards that
determine whether or not a strength-training program is effective and
appropriate for high-school and collegiate players.
Baseball is a sport that has
traditionally been unresponsive to change.
This is evident in the area of conditioning programs. Baseball coaches typically have used
conservative methods when conditioning their players, and often use the same
methods year after year. There are
coaches who are willing to use training methods that may be new to them, but
because of unfounded concerns or training fallacies, they may be reluctant to
incorporate systematic and comprehensive training programs in fear of hindering
their athletes. For example, many
baseball coaches do not recommend weight training for their players for fear
that it could cause their players to become too bulky, limit their range of
motion, and decrease their overall flexibility, all of which could lead to a
decreased level of performance. However,
research by Murphy and Forney has shown that a proper program will not overly
bulk up a player and will actually increase range of motion (Murphy & Forney, 1997). Another study by Potteiger,
Williford, Blessing, and Smidt
also showed that if players performed weight-training exercises correctly,
muscular flexibility could be increased (Potteiger, Williford, Blessing, & Smidt,
1992). Any effective strength-training
program should incorporate exercises that will aid in increasing and
maintaining the athlete’s level of flexibility.
Strength
Training Background
A sport-specific training program is
designed to improve a player’s overall physical condition and enhance his
performance of a sport-specific skill.
An appropriate program takes a multi-dimensional approach to attaining
the desired results. This type of
program focuses on improving the training components of muscular strength and
power, anaerobic and aerobic capacity, body composition, and flexibility. The specific skills of running, throwing,
hitting, and fielding depend upon these training components, and while some may
be more important than others, improving these training components can result
in a positive influence of the performance of the aforementioned skills as
required in baseball (Hagerman, Starr, & Murray, 1989).
Controversy and debate on the benefits of
supplemental conditioning exercises continues to exist among those in the
baseball profession. Supplemental
exercises, also referred to as auxiliary exercises, are those exercises that
generally have no direct effect on baseball skill development. It is difficult to measure the effect that
supplemental exercises have on improving the level of a baseball player’s
performance; but experts in other skill-oriented sports have recommended
adopting supplemental, non-specific exercise programs as part of an athlete’s
training regimen. Their recommendations
were based upon observed improvements in performance of athletes who have
participated in successful testing and conditioning regimens (Hagerman, et al.,
1989).
Muscular strength and power are the two
most important training components to consider when developing a
strength-training program for baseball players.
Strength refers to the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert
force. It is a training component vital
in many of the skills necessary in baseball competition. Power refers to the ability of the
neuromuscular system to overcome a resistance in a given time period. Maximal force is generated through rapid,
explosive movements of the muscles. (Watkinson, 1997).
The source of power for baseball hitters
and pitchers is centered in the musculature of the trunk and lower body
regions. Baseball players need
appropriate trunk and lower body development in order to transfer power from
the muscles to the movements required in hitting and pitching (Gardner &
Schwab, 1998). Most of this force is
initiated in the lower body and trunk musculature, where it then must be transferred
and accelerated through the upper body to the bat or the ball (Weatherly & Schinck, 1996).
Rapid rotational and explosive movements
of the trunk, which are initiated in the hips and legs, are common in hitting
and pitching movements. Rotational trunk
movements may contribute fully half of the force in a pitching or throwing
motion. The trunk must transfer the
momentum created in the lower extremities up to the throwing arm, in turn
generating the high angular velocities specific to pitching (Gardner &
Schwab, 1998). According to the results
of a biomechanical study, 47% of the velocity of the overhand throw can be
attributed to the stride and body rotation, whereas 53% of the velocity was due
to action of the arm. Therefore,
training programs for baseball players to improve throwing velocity should be
designed to include arm, trunk, and lower-body exercises (DeRenne,
Ho, & Murphy, 2001).
Of course, trunk rotation is also vital
in hitting the baseball. The legs
accelerate initially, followed by an acceleration of the trunk region. The legs and trunk then decelerate, which
facilitates the arms coming through in a manner analogous to a whipping type of
motion as the bat passes through during the swing (Weatherly & Schinck, 1996).
The legs are used primarily in gross movements
that are mainly unilateral. The legs
have higher force requirements than the upper body because they must propel the
weight of the player’s body. The trunk
movements utilized in hitting and throwing are diagonal and rotational in
nature. The trunk is responsible for
receiving, producing, and transmitting force through these diagonal/rotational
movements primarily through the muscles of the abdomen and the lower back. The upper body movements are exceptionally
rapid and are considered to be fine motor skills. Throwing and hitting also require high-speed,
eccentric strength for deceleration purposes (Weatherly & Schinck, 1996).
Players can throw with greater velocity
and hit with more power when the muscles of the trunk, lower body, and arm/
shoulder areas move at greater velocities.
Players can achieve greater muscular movement velocities by training
their muscles to generate forces in less time (Watkinson, 1997).
The abdominals, obliques,
lower back muscles, gluteals, hamstrings, quadriceps,
and muscles of the hip region initiate power and should be trained in a
high-velocity, explosive manner.
Therefore, core exercises in a strength-training program for baseball
players should consist of parallel squats and power cleans,
two exercises that focus on developing maximal power output in the major
muscles of the upper leg and hip regions (Shepard, 1998). Training methods
utilizing plyometric exercises and medicine balls are effective in the
development of the abdominal and lower back muscles (Odgers,
1993).
Muscles of the shoulder/arm region should
be trained in a more conventional manner.
Exercises used to train this region should focus on internal and
external shoulder rotation (Weatherly & Schinck,
1996). Stabilizing exercises are
necessary for the shoulder and rotator cuff regions and should be baseball
specific in nature (Gardner & Schwab, 1998). In addition to the training of the muscles
responsible for acceleration of the arms in hitting and throwing movements, an
emphasis should also be placed on the training of the muscles responsible for
the deceleration of the arms in these movements, an area that is often
neglected in exercise programs (Panariello, 1992).
Training
Effects on Throwing Velocity
A review of the literature revealed that
a majority of the studies that evaluated performance variables tended to focus
on throwing velocity as the measurable factor.
Throwing velocity refers to the velocity at which an individual can
throw a baseball. Throwing velocity is
one of the more important determinants of success in baseball, especially among
pitchers. The review of the literature
indicated that throwing velocity could be increased with an improvement of the
biomechanics necessary in throwing movements, or by incorporating a
resistance-training program that trains the muscles used in these movements (DeRenne, et al., 2001).
This portion of the review will focus on the effects of resistance- or
strength-training programs on throwing velocity.
In a study conducted by Lachowetz, Evon, and Pastiglione (1998) which measured throwing velocity, a
comparison was made between two groups of baseball players during the fall
portion of the preseason. The treatment
group received eight weeks of strength training while the control received no
training. Previous research on the
relation between strength training and throwing velocity had focused on
increasing the strength of the muscles responsible for acceleration of the arm,
with minimal attention given to the muscles responsible for arm
deceleration. The training program in
this study, however, addressed the issue of muscle balance by specifically
targeting both the muscles responsible for acceleration and deceleration of the
throwing arm. Analysis showed a
significantly higher mean for throwing velocity of the treatment group
following the eight weeks of strength training (Lachowetz,
Evon, & Pastiglione,
1998).
In a 1994 study which measured throwing
velocity,
The use of medicine balls as a means to
improve the throwing velocity of baseball players is a type of training based
on the specificity of training theory.
In this case, the specificity of training theory rationalizes that
medicine ball training is more specific to the throwing action used in baseball
in terms of the velocity of movement, the load being accelerated, and the
execution of a coordinated full-body action.
Therefore, it would be expected that training with medicine balls would
be more effective than traditional weight training. However, upon completion of the study, the
weight-training group showed a noticeable increase in throwing velocity, while
the group that trained with medicine balls showed no significant increase in
throwing velocity. The group that
trained with medicine balls did, however, show a significant increase in levels
of strength (Newton & McEvoy, 1994).
DeRenne, Ho,
and Murphy (2001) reviewed the three broad categories of resistance-training
methods by which throwing velocity could be improved. According to DeRenne,
Ho, and Murphy, resistance-training exercises are classified as general,
special, or specific, depending on their biomechanical characteristics and effects
on the neuromuscular system.
The first category, general-resistance
exercises, aims to increase the overall, maximal strength of the muscles. In theory, general-resistance exercises aim
to improve the contractile capabilities of the muscle. General-resistance exercises typically are
isotonic in nature. Traditionally,
isotonic-resistance training used in throwing velocity studies among
high-school and collegiate baseball players involved upper-body free-weight
exercises, including those exercises that utilized dumbbells to train the
shoulder region. The majority of these
studies demonstrated that a significant increase in throwing velocity could
result from upper-body isotonic training (DeRenne, et
al., 2001).
The second category, special-resistance
exercises, can be used to train athletes for the development of muscular
power. The purpose of training with
special-resistance exercises is to convert general muscular strength to the
quality of muscular power as it is relevant to throwing. Special-resistance exercises produce the
explosive muscular power output needed for the ballistic movements of
throwing.
Studies previously done on
special-resistance exercises and their effects on throwing velocity have
focused on three types of training methods.
The first type is concentric/eccentric training, which concentrates on
the explosive concentric/eccentric movements that target the muscles used for
acceleration and deceleration of the throwing arm. The second type is ballistic training, which
combines the powerful elements of plyometric training and weight training. The exercise protocol for ballistic training
involves the lifting of relatively light loads at high speeds. Ballistic training has been supported by
numerous strength-training coaches who believe that the closer the velocity and
movement pattern of the training exercise is to the actual skill required in a
competitive sport, the greater the transfer of training gains to the athletic
performance. The final type of training
is isokinetic training, in which the speed of
movement is fixed and the resistance varies in accordance with the amount of
muscular force exerted. It appears,
based on the results of research, that all three types of special-resistance
training can significantly improve throwing velocity (DeRenne,
et al., 2001).
Specific-resistance exercises are
designed to adhere to the concept of specificity by providing a training
stimulus that is very similar to an actual motion or skill performed in competition. Examples of specific-resistance training
included exercises that incorporate weighted implements, surgical tubing, wall
pulleys, and exercise rubber bands.
Studies have sought to prove whether or not specific-resistance training
exercises principally recruit the high-threshold motor units used in the
movements of throwing by imitating the actual motion and velocity of these
movements. Results have been
inconclusive to this point on this matter.
However, studies conducted on specific-resistance exercises have all
reported an increase in throwing velocity after training with these methods (DeRenne, et al., 2001).
Training
Effects on the Reduction of Shoulder and Elbow Pain
Shoulder injuries are reported to be the
most common type of baseball injury, accounting for 19% of all injuries, while
elbow injuries comprise 8% of the reported injuries. Research showed that the rotator cuff complex
is involved in 68% of shoulder injuries in baseball. Most physicians, physical therapists, and
coaches agree that the nature of the repetitive eccentric, contractions of the
rotator cuff and the biceps during the deceleration/follow-through phase of a
pitch is the primary reason for the high number of injuries to these areas (Lachowetz, Drury, Elliot, Evon,
& Pastiglione, 1998).
Several studies have investigated the
concentric strength of the arm musculature in the throwing motion, but there
has been little research on eccentric strength of the arm. Concentric strength is important in the
acceleration phase of the throwing motion as the upper body muscles needed in
throwing movements contract in preparation of the delivery of the
baseball. However, it is the eccentric
strength of these upper body muscles required during the
deceleration/follow-through phase that may be most critical in preventing
injury (Lachowetz, Drury, et al., 1998).
In a study conducted by Lachowetz, Drury, Elliot, Evon,
and Pastiglione, baseball players were randomly
assigned to a training group and a control group. The training group participated in eight
weeks of strength training consisting of eleven exercises involving a
combination of isokinetic machines, free-weight
equipment, and a cable-pulley machine.
The control group received no training.
After the eight-week training period, both groups participated in a
maximal-effort throwing session followed by pain measurements for the elbow and
shoulder; the measurements were recorded with a 10-cm visual analog scale. Initially, pain levels were measured in the
elbow and shoulder area prior to the maximal-effort throwing session in order
to establish a baseline level of pain.
Pain levels were then measured at intervals of 24 hours, 48 hours, and
72 hours following the maximal-effort throwing session. There were no significant differences in
shoulder pain at baseline, but there were significant differences in shoulder
pain levels between groups at the 24-, 48-, 72-hour time intervals with regard
to mean shoulder pain. There were no
significant differences in mean elbow pain levels between groups at baseline or
at any of the time intervals (Lachowetz, Drury, et
al., 1998).
The data of this study suggested that
strength-training programs for intercollegiate baseball players can yield the
benefits associated with eccentric training.
The belief that baseball players will suffer losses in flexibility, and
thus suffer decreases in performance, from regimens that employ eccentric
training appears to be a myth. In fact,
research has shown that players who do not participate in strength training,
particularly during the competitive season, are at a greater risk for
performance decrements.
Strength-training programs, particularly those that incorporate an
eccentric component, can result in an increase in strength and a reduction in
post-throwing pain, allowing for a quicker recovery time between throwing
bouts. In addition to these benefits,
eccentric training programs can contribute to an increase in throwing velocity
(Lachowetz, Drury, et al., 1998).
Training
Effects on Overall Athletic Conditioning and Performance
In addition to the dramatic effect that
strength-training programs can have on throwing velocity and the reduction of
pain in the shoulder and elbow regions, these programs may also have a positive
effect on an individual player’s offensive production, pitching production, or
on the overall success of a team. While
there is very little to no research on these effects, there has been some
scientific research done in regards to overall athletic conditioning and
performance of baseball players.
The purpose of a study conducted by Potteiger et al. was to examine the effects of two training
methods on selected physiological and performance factors that were deemed
important to successful performance in baseball by the researchers. The researchers attempted to determine
whether a weight/sprint conditioning program or an aerobic-dance conditioning
program would significantly change selected body composition (BC), cardiovascular
(CV) and performance (PF) variables in baseball players. Twenty-one collegiate
baseball players participated in a 10-week conditioning program in addition to
their normal baseball activities. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a
weight/sprint (WS) or an aerobic-dance (AE) training group. The WS group
performed strength and sprint training, while the AE group was involved in an
aerobic dance program. Pre- and post-training measurements were taken of the
following variables: height, weight, percent of body fat, lean body mass, lower
body flexibility, aerobic power, anaerobic power,
throwing velocity and 30-yard sprint time.
The WS group showed significant
improvement in the PF variables. Anaerobic power increased 4.2 percent, while
throwing velocity increased 3.0 percent after the WS training. No significant
changes in the BC or CV variables were observed. The AE group produced
significant differences in the BC variables. An 8.5 percent decrease was
observed for levels of body fat, while lean body mass increased 2.1 percent
after the aerobic-dance program. There were no significant changes in CV or PF
variables in the AE group. There were no significant interactions between the
WS and AE groups for any of the variables. The results indicated that a
weight/sprint training program will improve PF variables related to baseball,
while maintaining acceptable BC and CV components. Based on this information,
it is suggested that baseball coaches use weight/sprint conditioning when
training their players (Potteiger, et al., 1992).
In a study conducted from 1981 to 1987 by
Hagerman, Starr, and Murray, players on a major league baseball team underwent
physical fitness testing for the entire seven-year period, or for as long as
they remained with the team. The purpose
was to evaluate each player’s fitness status and design individualized training
programs for both the off- and in-seasons based on the test results. Body composition, flexibility, aerobic
capacity, anaerobic power, muscle strength, and muscle power were the fitness
areas that were evaluated. Results
indicated that baseball players are highly skilled athletes whose muscle
strength and anaerobic power are excellent, whose flexibility is better than
average, but whose aerobic capacity is low.
A comprehensive training and education program produced significant
improvements in all areas of fitness testing with the exception of aerobic
capacity (Hagerman, et al., 1989).
Implementing
Change
Coaches, trainers, and athletes have
slowly begun to acknowledge the value of strength training as it relates to
improved skill performance in baseball.
In years past, it was thought that lifting weights would hinder a
baseball player’s ability to pitch, throw, and hit. Thanks to research and education, it is now
known that strength training is not detrimental to a baseball player’s level of
performance, and can actually improve and enhance his performance. There are still some coaches, however, who do
not believe that strength training can be useful when developing a baseball
player’s skills. Further research needs
to be conducted to more closely examine the effects of strength training on a
baseball player’s skill enhancement and performance. Additionally, coaches need to be continually
educated on the rapidly changing theories, ideas, and trends in strength
training for baseball players.
Up-to-date knowledge and training techniques can enable coaches to
implement appropriate strength-training programs which can lead to improved
success of their team.
Summary
It is evident by examining the existing
research and data, that strength-training programs can have a positive effect
on the variables important to a baseball player’s level of performance, and
also aid in the reduction of arm and shoulder pain. It is imperative that strength-training
programs use particular exercises related to baseball-specific skills in order
for the use of these programs to be effective in achieving the desired
outcomes. The research on this topic is
still relatively new, and further research needs to be conducted to understand
any far-reaching implications that strength-training programs may have on
baseball players.
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